We then confirm that this complementary system affects pattern types in fixed and expanding two-dimensional spaces

in a similar way to the system with ubiquitous synthesis. In addition, the two-layer system includes two types of diffusion, lateral and transversal, and these have distinct effects on pattern formation with lateral diffusion mainly determining the periodicity of patterns generated and transversal diffusion affecting pattern type. These results suggest that the transversal diffusion functions as a time delay in the two-layer system. Finally, we apply this complementary system to explain pattern formation of the shoot apical meristem of plants. These findings provide an understanding of pattern formation caused by the interaction between cell layers in multicellular organisms. (C) 2013 S3I-201 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Obtaining enough membrane protein in native or native-like status is still a challenge in membrane protein structure biology. Maltose binding protein (MBP) has been widely used as a fusion partner in improving membrane protein production. In the present work, a systematic assessment on the application of mature MBP (mMBP) for membrane protein overexpression

and purification was performed on 42 membrane proteins, most of which showed no or poor expression level in membrane fraction fused with an N-terminal SCH772984 chemical structure Histag. It was found that most of the small membrane proteins were overexpressed in the native membrane of Escherichia coil when using mMBP. In addition, the proteolysis of the fusions were performed on the membrane without solubilization with detergents, leading to the development of an efficient protocol VX809 to directly purify the target membrane proteins from the membrane fraction through a one-step affinity chromatography. Our results indicated that mMBP is an excellent fusion partner for overexpression,

membrane targeting and purification of small membrane proteins. The present expression and purification method may be a good solution for the large scale preparation of small membrane proteins in structural and functional studies. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“We propose a model of multi level (group) selection in the presence of climate variability, where environment and culture coevolve. The model describes a population subdivided into groups, each with access to a renewable resource. Individuals employ different harvesting strategies: Defectors harvest more resources than cooperators and punishers. In groups with many defectors, resource extraction may exceed the level of sustainable harvests, causing resource exhaustion. Weather shocks accelerate resource scarcity and eliminate groups with many defectors. The model is used to study conditions under which resource conservation evolves. Conservation is costly but enhances group’s chances of survival. We study conditions under which environmental crises enhance the evolution of cooperation.