, 2003). However, recent reports contend that the contribution of homologous

recombination to core diversity in S. aureus may be underestimated (Chan et al., 2011). Nevertheless, mutation is a significant driving force buy FK506 in S. aureus diversification allowing for evolutionary classification of strains into ST types (see above) (Enright et al., 2000). Most SNPs are within coding regions reflecting the fact that ~ 80% of the core genome encodes protein (Highlander et al., 2007). Synonymous SNPs, those that do not result in amino acid changes, by far outweigh amino acid substituting nonsynonymous SNPs in S. aureus (Herron et al., 2002; Gill et al., 2005; Herron-Olson et al., 2007; Sivaraman & Cole, 2009). This is likely selleck chemicals because nonsynonymous mutations are more often detrimental and are therefore subject to evolutionary loss via purifying selection. Consequently, the relative

ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitution rate (dN/dS) among staphylococci is generally less than 1. In contrast, a recent report comparing the complete genome sequences of 10 newly isolated USA300 clones with the published FPRF3757 USA300 sequence revealed an unusually high ratio of nonsynonymous : synonymous SNPs (as high as 2.6 : 1, much higher than reported in comparisons of non-USA300 S. aureus lineages) (Kennedy et al., 2008). This discrepancy can be rationalized by assuming a recent clonal expansion of the USA300 lineage such that new isolates still harbor nonsynonymous SNPs that have not yet undergone purifying selection (Holden et al., 2004). To be sure, the unusually high dN/dS ratio of USA300 PDK4 clones is inconsistent with evolutionary convergence among distantly related clones, an event that would only be consistent with normal to low dN/dS ratios if the converging progenitors were of sufficiently diverse origins (Kennedy et al., 2008). It is important to note that overall low dN/dS ratios are not necessarily constant across all functional gene families. For instance, while housekeeping and metabolic genes generally exhibit low dN/dS ratios, genes encoding surface associated or secreted proteins can often

have elevated dN/dS ratios (Jordan et al., 2002; Rocha & Danchin, 2004). This is indicative of forward selective pressures driving variability in these genes either to promote functional differences (e.g. an adhesin adapting to a host receptor molecule) or immune avoidance through changes in antigenicity. Indeed, comparisons among divergent S. aureus clones reveal higher dN/dS ratios for genes encoding components of the cell envelope and secreted proteins than genes encoding housekeeping or metabolic enzymes (Herron et al., 2002; Herron-Olson et al., 2007; Highlander et al., 2007). USA300 clones, however, seem to be an exception to this rule. A recent comparison of genome sequences from USA200, USA300, and a distantly related S.

Serial dilutions of the homogenates were plated onto MacConkey agar (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), and the number of colony-forming units was determined after overnight incubation at 37°C. Results are generally expressed as the mean ± standard error of the mean (s.e.m.) unless noted otherwise. The statistical significance of differences between groups was evaluated by Student’s Dabrafenib purchase t-test. A P-value less than 0·05 was considered to be statistically significant. Previous studies could show that CCR6

is expressed by lymphocytes within CP. To characterize further the significance of this finding we compared the expression of CCR6 by lin- c-kit+ using immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry. FACS analysis of lin- c-kit+

LPL (Fig. 1a) revealed a significant proportion of CCR6-expressing cells within the lin- c-kit+ LPL cell fraction (approximately 15–20%; analysis of heterozygous EGFP–CCR6 knock-in mice). However, when analysed by immunohistochemistry (Fig. 1b), a significantly higher number of CP cells express this receptor (approximately 75%), indicating that lin- c-kit+ cells must be found outside CP within the lamina propria, and that CCR6 is a marker for localization of these cells within CP. Various data suggest that signals transduced by Notch receptors are important for T cell specification and differentiation of αβversusγδ T lineage decision inside the gut [12]. As CCR6-deficient mice

are Ku-0059436 characterized by an expanded IEL fraction exhibiting a significant expansion of αβTCR IEL with unaltered γδTCR IEL [13–15], we examined the expression of Notch 1–4 by lin- c-kit+ LPL of wild-type and CCR6 knock-out Smoothened mice supposed to be precursors of intestinal IEL (Fig. 2a). Isolated cells from both types of mice expressed similar levels of Notch-1, -2 and -4, as determined by RT–PCR, whereas no expression of Notch-3 could be found. In addition, we analysed the expression of Notch-ligands by bmDCs expressing high levels of CCR6 (data not shown) after Mip3α stimulation. Again, we were not able to find any significant induction of Jagged-1, Jagged-2 and Delta-4 after Mip3α stimulation (Fig. 2b), suggesting that Notch signalling within CP is unlikely to be involved in the altered IEL development of CCR6 knock-out mice. To determine the expression of other chemokine receptors by lin- c-kit+ cells, LPL were isolated from the lamina propria and identified consecutively by staining with antibodies to c-kit and lineage markers (lin). After MACS sorting RNA was isolated from lin- c-kit+ as well as lin+ c-kit+ cells. In parallel, RNA from mature intraepithelial lymphocytes and Peyer’s patches were prepared. Chemokine receptor expression was analysed by two different multiplex PCR kits, including primers for amplification of CCR1-9 as well as CX3CR1. As shown in Fig.

Udenafil has a pharmacokinetic profile in that its Tmax is about 1–1.5 h and its T1/2 is about 11–13 h.72 One hundred and twenty patients who had stable alpha-blocker therapy for BPH took 100 mg udenafil for 8 weeks. IPSS significantly improved compared with baseline from 14.3 to 11.9.67 In a randomized and placebo-controlled study, vardenafil 10 mg twice a day for 8 weeks was used as a treatment for LUTS (IPSS ≥ 12) in men with BPH.68 The mean improvement of total IPSS in was 5.9 in the vardenafil arm and 3.6 in the

placebo. Although the difference in total score was statistically significant, there was no statistical significance in Qmax and postvoid residual urine volume (PVR). In nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy patients, vardenafil once daily at bedtime resulted

in greater urinary function Bioactive Compound Library price and urinary bothersome symptoms.69 Jin et al.62 recently reported the results of a clinical study designed to ascertain the safety and efficacy of the combination of alpha-blocker, doxazosin and sildenafil versus monotherapy of sildenafil for the treatment of BPH/LUTS and ED. Alfuzosin, sildenafil or tadalafil, or the combination of alpha-adrenoceptor-blocker and a PDE5 I were clinically used to evaluate the effect in BPH/LUTS. PVR, Qmax, frequency and nocturia were significantly improved with alfuzosin only and the combination regimen.70 These

results supported that combination treatment was a safe and Ponatinib purchase effective therapy for enhancing both voiding and sexual function in men at high risk of BPH/LUTS and ED. PDE5 I with short and long half-lives have been demonstrated to significantly improve LUTS Morin Hydrate in men. Zhao et al.73 evaluated single dose effects of tadalafil or udenafil. Udenafil and tadalafil significantly increased the levels of cGMP and cAMP in prostatic tissue (Fig. 1). These results suggest that PDE5 I enhanced the production of cyclic nucleotides in the plasma, although the source of the cyclic nucleotides is unknown.73 Most tissues contain multiple forms of PDEs but in tissues (including the penile corpus cavernosum), PDE5 is the major cGMP hydrolyzing PDE.74 PDE5 I act by inhibiting the PDE5 enzyme in the tissue/organ. The physiological activity of the tissue is regulated by cGMP and the cellular cGMP level is maintained by the balance between the rates of synthesis by guanylate cyclase and breakdown by PDE. PDE cleave the cyclic phosphate ring that is required for the action of cGMP.75 Therefore, the administration of PDE5 I results in an equivalent pharmacological effect at the site or the organ where the enzyme exists. PDE5 enzyme is expressed in the prostate.

The aim of this study is to evaluate the association of the course of depression symptoms, based on repeated assessments of depression symptoms over time, with left

ventricular mass index (LVMI) and left ventricular filling pressure (LVFP) in patients on haemodialysis (HD). Methods:  The level of depression symptoms in 61 patients on HD were prospectively assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) at baseline and at three intervals (5, 10, 15 months). Doppler echocardiographic examinations were performed at the end of follow up. Results:  At the end of follow up, the patients were divided into three groups according to their course of depression symptoms: non-depression Hedgehog antagonist (n = 21), intermittent depression (n = 23) and persistent depression (n = 17). LVMI and LVFP were significantly increased in the persistent depression symptoms group compared to those of the non-depression symptoms group and the intermittent depression symptoms group. Persistent depression symptoms were independently associated with LVMI (β-coefficient = 0.347, P = 0.017)

and LVFP (β-coefficient = 0.274, P = 0.048) after adjustment for age, sex, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, diabetes and interdialytic weight gain. Conclusion:  In our study, persistent depression symptoms were associated with left ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction. Our data may provide a more complete understanding of cardiovascular risk associated with depression symptoms in patients AT9283 concentration on HD. “
“Aim:  The role of the tumour necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK)/Fn14 and interferon-inducible protein (IP-10)/CXCR3 axis in the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis were studied. Methods:  The mRNA expression of TWEAK, Fn14, IP-10 and CXCR3 were quantified in the glomerulus and tubulointerstitium of 42 patients with lupus nephritis (LN group) and 10 healthy controls.

Results:  As compared to controls, LN patients had higher glomerular expression of TWEAK and Fn14, but glomerular CXCR3 expression was lower in the LN group. Similarly, the LN group had higher tubulointerstitial expression of TWEAK and Fn14, but lower tubulointerstitial expression of CXCR3, than controls. Glomerular TWEAK expression Protein kinase N1 of class V nephritis was significantly higher than class IV nephritis. Glomerular expression of CXCR3 significantly correlated with proteinuria (r = −0.532; P = 0.019), whereas tubulointerstitial CXCR3 significantly correlated with serum creatinine (r = −0.447; P = 0.029). Conclusion:  In patients with lupus nephritis, there is an increase in intra-renal expression of TWEAK and Fn14, and a decrease in CXCR3 expression. Intra-renal expression of CXCR3 correlates with proteinuria and renal function. Our findings suggest that the TWEAK/Fn14 and IP-10/CXCR3 axis may contribute to the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis.

Amplification products can be detected easily by visual assessment of turbidity in Eppendorf vials or by electrophoresis. The sensitivity of LAMP does not appear to be affected by the presence of nontarget DNA in samples, and there is no interference by known PCR inhibitors such as

blood, serum, plasma or heparin (Notomi et al., 2000; Enosawa et al., 2003; Poon et al., 2005). These properties of high specificity, selectivity, simplicity and speed made LAMP attractive for the diagnosis of bacteria (Iwamoto et al., 2003; Yoshida et al., 2005; Aoi et al., 2006), viruses (Poon et al., 2004; Hagiwara et al., 2007; Cai et al., 2008) and parasites (Ikadai et al., 2004; Iseki et al., 2007). However, very few papers have appeared on the use of LAMP with fungi (Endo Selleck Poziotinib et al., 2004; Ohori et al., 2006; Inacio et al., 2008). We recently developed a protocol for LAMP detection for Fonsecaea agents of chromoblastomycosis (Sun, 2009). In the present study, we introduce LAMP Selleck Ceritinib diagnostics for P. marneffei in paraffin wax-embedded human tissue and in bamboo rat tissue samples. Forty strains of P. marneffei isolated from human patients and 46 reference strains used in this study are listed in Table 1. All isolates were cultured on Sabouraud’s glucose

agar plates at 25 °C for 1 week; Escherichia coli was cultured in flasks shaken at 250 r.p.m. with Luria–Bertani at 37 °C overnight. About 0.5 g of mycelium or conidia, or precipitate of E. coli, respectively, were harvested for DNA extraction. Twenty-three

tissue samples from 23 patients (Zeng et al., 2009) were selected. These included 12 samples from patients with proven penicilliosis marneffei, three from chromoblastomycosis, three from sporotrichosis, one from histoplasmosis, one from cryptococcosis, one from candidiasis, one from pulmonary aspergillosis and one from visually healthy human skin. Cases from human patients were confirmed by routine and molecular identification methods. Fossariinae Penicillium marneffei was also isolated from 10 of 11 bamboo rat tissue samples; one (bamboo rat liver) was used as a negative control. The time that elapsed after paraffin embedding of the tissue samples ranged between one day and 13 years. About 10-μg sectioned paraffin material was used for DNA extraction. Fungal DNA from pure culture was extracted using 6% InStaGeneTMMatrix (Bio-Rad, CA) as described previously (Xi et al., 2009). Crude DNA of paraffin wax-embedded tissue was extracted from approximately 10-μg sections of paraffin wax-embedded tissue using the QIAamp® FFPE Tissue Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) according to Zeng et al. (2009). DNA concentrations were measured spectrophotometrically at 260 nm (Shimadzu Corp., Japan). DNA quality was confirmed by successful PCR amplification using universal fungal primers internal transcribed spacer (ITS)4 and ITS5 (Zeng et al., 2009).

4). A final set of analyses were run to examine the relations between performance on the VPC eye-tracking task and the ERP task for the CON and HII infants. The VPC measures included the proportion of time spent on the novel face at each comparison delay: Imm, 2 min, and Day 2. ERP measures included Nc and PSW amplitude. For the present analyses, Nc variables and PSW variables were each collapsed across condition, then an average Nc (Nc-all), and an average PSW (PSW-all) was calculated from the average

for frontocentral electrode sites and temporal electrode sites. Due to the main effect of region found for the PSW in both the frontocentral and the temporal analyses, responses were averaged from left frontocentral electrodes and left temporal electrodes to create a PSW-left variable that focused on the region Rapamycin ic50 of highest amplitude. Infants were included in a correlation if they had (1) met minimum criteria for the VPC familiarization, (2) met criteria for inclusion in the ERP analysis, and (3) met minimum criteria for at least one of the three VPC delay conditions (i.e., if an infant spent greater than 30% of the time on the Bcl-2 inhibitor images during Imm test, but not 2 min or Day 2, they would be included in the correlation only for Imm test). Table 6 details the number of infants contributing to each analysis, including the number of infants contributing

data to all five sets of analyses (CON = 9, HII = 3). For CON, correlations were performed examining novelty preference at each comparison delay with the three ERP variables (Nc-all, PSW-all, PSW-left). For the VPC Imm delay condition (13 CON) and the VPC 2-min delay condition

(13 CON), no significant relations were found with the ERP measures (ps > .37). When examining relations with the VPC Day 2 test (12 CON), a significant positive correlation between novelty preference and PSW-all was found (r(10) = .73, p = .007; see Figure 6) and a marginal correlation with PSW-left (r(10) = .51, p = .092). Correlations for HII infants were not conducted due to limited sample size (3, 4, and 6 infants for Imm, 2 min, and Day 2, respectively). However, we conducted a preliminary analysis to examine the influence of group on these cross-task relations. A univariate ANOVA was conducted for each VPC Decitabine chemical structure delay that included novelty preference as the dependent variable with group and PSW-all as potential explanatory variables. For novelty preference, the model showed no main effects or interactions when the dependent variable was VPC Imm (ps > .24) and VPC 2 min (ps > .84). In the model using Day 2 VPC novelty preference as the dependent variable, an interaction between group and PSW-all was found (F(1, 14) = 4.60, p = .05, ηp2 = .25), suggesting that the relation between PSW mean amplitude and Day 2 novelty preference is different for the two groups. Figure 6 shows the relation between Day 2 VPC novelty preference and PSW amplitude across all regions (PSW-all) for both HII and CON.

However, OVA-pulsed viable DC that had taken up apopotic DC failed to induce OVA-specific T-cell proliferation Cabozantinib datasheet (Fig. 5F). These results indicate that upon uptake of apoptotic DC but not necrotic DC, viable DC are refractory to LPS-induced maturation. As viable DC acquired a tolerogenic phenotype upon apoptotic DC uptake, we then assessed the ability of viable DC to induce Treg differentiation upon apoptotic DC uptake. Culture of naïve CD4+CD25– OT-II T cells with OVA-pulsed viable DC resulted in approximately 4–5% of naïve T

cells differentiating into Foxp3+ Treg, which increased to approximately 23–24% upon culture with OVA-pulsed ZD1839 cost viable DC that had taken up apoptotic DC. In contrast, culture of naïve CD4+CD25– T cells with OVA-pulsed viable DC that had taken up necrotic DC only resulted in approximately 5–6% Foxp3+ Treg (Fig. 6A and B). The increase in the proportion of Foxp3+ Treg was not paralleled by an increase in the absolute T-cell count, indicating that it was likely the induced expression of Foxp3 and not expansion, which mediated the observed increase in the proportion of Foxp3+ Treg among T cells cultured with OVA-pulsed viable DC that had taken up apoptotic DC (data not shown). In order to test whether the induction of Foxp3+ Treg

was induced specifically upon uptake of apoptotic DC by viable immature DC and not by uptake of other types of apoptotic cells, we looked at the effects of apoptotic splenocyte uptake on the ability of viable

DC to induce Foxp3+ Treg. Results indicate that the uptake of apoptotic splenocytes did not enhance the ability of viable DC to induce Treg, as only 7–8% of naïve T cells differentiated into Foxp3+ Treg, which was similar to the control group. Furthermore, we also assessed the ability of in vitro-generated Foxp3+ Treg to suppress T-cell proliferation. from Our findings identify that the CD4+CD25+ T-cell subset only from the co-culture of naïve T cells and OVA-pulsed viable DC that had taken up apoptotic DC, was in fact enriched for suppressor T cells, as they were able to inhibit T-cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 6C). Overall, these results indicate that it was specifically the uptake of apoptotic DC which was primarily responsible for the induction of Foxp3+ Treg by viable DC. Next, we wanted to assess whether the ability to induce Foxp3+ Treg by viable DC upon apoptotic DC uptake dependent on interaction with naïve T cells or soluble factors. This was tested by separating T cells from DC using a transwell plate followed by an assessment of Foxp3+ Treg induction.

Type I diabetes was induced in Zucker rats using STZ. Half of the STZ animals were treated with apocynin, a NOX inhibitor. After four weeks, lung Kf was measured in the isolated lung in the presence or absence of TRPM2 inhibitors (2-APB and FA). In an additional set of experiments, Kf was measured in nondiabetic Zucker rats after applying the superoxide donor (PMS). As compared to control rats, hyperglycemic rats exhibited increased

vascular superoxide and Kf, along with decreased lung vascular TRPM2-L expression. Apocynin treatment reduced superoxide and Kf in hyperglycemic rats with no effect in control rats. TRPM2 Target Selective Inhibitor Library mouse channel inhibition decreased Kf in hyperglycemic rats with no effect in control rats. PMS increased the lung Kf in control rats, with TRPM2 inhibition attenuating this response. Diabetic rats exhibit a TRPM2-mediated increase in lung Kf, which is associated with increased TRPM2 activation and increased vascular superoxide levels. “
“Please cite this paper as: Thompson, Przemska, Vasilopoulou, Newens, and Williams (2011). Combined Oral Contraceptive Pills Containing Desogestrel

or Drospirenone Enhance Large Vessel and Microvasculature Vasodilation in Healthy Premenopausal Women. Microcirculation 18(5), https://www.selleckchem.com/products/Trichostatin-A.html 339–346. Objective:  To determine the effects of different COCs on endothelial function. Background:  COCs all contain ethinylestradiol, but different progestins; three of the more common progestins are DSG, LN, and DR. Ethinylestradiol enhances some measures of vascular reactivity, but certain progestins may increase risk of vascular diseases and impair endothelial vasodilation. Methods:  Twenty-nine healthy women taking COCs containing 30 μg ethinylestradiol and 150 μg DSG (Marvelon, n = 10), 150 μg LN (Microgynon, n = 10), or 3 mg DR (Yasmin, n = 9) had their vascular reactivity measured using various techniques during their pill-free week (days 5–7) and the third week of active

pills (days 26–28). A 4��8C reference group (n = 10) underwent the same measurements on two consecutive cycles. Results:  FMD and LDI were significantly higher during active-pill visits than pill-free visits in women taking DSG and DR (p < 0.02), but not in women taking LN. There were no differences between the duplicate measures in the reference group. Conclusions:  COCs containing 150 μg DSG or 3 mg DR significantly increase endothelium-dependent vasodilation in both large vessels and peripheral microvasculature. These effects may be due to the progestins exhibiting differential effects on eNOS expression. "
“IL-27 belongs to the IL-12 family of cytokines and is recognized for its role in Th cell differentiation and as an inhibitor of tumor angiogenesis. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of IL-27 on proliferation of lymphatic endothelial cells to gain insight into the interplay between the immune system and development of the lymphatic system.

We therefore performed the detailed immunohistochemical study of 10 PH-IOs in 8 patients to clarify the mechanism of neuronal degeneration and its related phenomenon of PH-IO. We used various antibodies to αB-crystallin (αBC), synaptophysin

(SYP), microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2), Lys-Asp-Glu-Leu (KDEL) receptors, heat shock protein (HSP) 27 as well as SMI-31. We found αBC-positive neurons on the ipsilateral side of 10 PH-IOs. SMI-31-positive neurons were also observed in 6 PH-IOs. Confocal laser microscopy showed co-localization of αBC and SMI-31 in some neurons. However, there were no HSP27-positive neurons or astrocytes in any of the 10 PH-IOs. MAP2 immunostaining showed MAP2-positive hypertrophic thick neurites around hypertrophic neurons on the ipsilateral side of 7 PH-IOs and demonstrated “glomeruloid structures” in 3 PH-IOs. In addition, fine granular SYP-immunoreactivity was decreased Z-VAD-FMK in vitro in the neuropils on the ipsilateral side of all 10 PH-IOs. SYP-immunoreactive dots were scattered in the neuropils and

on the neuronal cell bodies on the side of 7 PH-IOs, and the aggregation of SYP-immunoreactive dots scattered in the neuropils was shown in 3 PH-IOs. Double-immunostainings using anti-MAP2 and anti-SYP antibodies demonstrated frequent SYP-immunoreactive dots along the MAP2-positive hypertrophic thick neurites and their cell bodies. Periphery-stained KDEL-positive neurons were also found on the side of 7 PH-IOs. We showed that the change of the distribution of presynaptic terminals correlated well to the hypertrophic thick neurites in

PH-IO. Our immuohistochemical learn more stainings demonstrated various changes which occurred to the neurons in PH-IO, and their neurites and presynaptic terminals. We considered that αBC was expressed in the neurons in PH-IO, induced by cellular stress. Such a detailed immunohistochemical investigation has not been reported previously. “
“Recently, both basic and clinical studies demonstrated that bone marrow stromal cell (BMSC) transplantation PLEK2 therapy can promote functional recovery of patients with CNS disorders. A non-invasive method for cell tracking using MRI and superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO)-based labeling agents has been applied to elucidate the behavior of transplanted cells. However, the long-term safety of SPIO-labeled BMSCs still remains unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the short-, middle- and long-term safety of the SPIO-labeled allogeneic BMSC transplantation. For this purpose, BMSCs were isolated from transgenic rats expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) and were labeled with SPIO. The Na/K ATPase pump inhibitor ouabain or vehicle was stereotactically injected into the right striatum of wild-type rats to induce a lacunar lesion (n = 22). Seven days after the insult, either BMSCs or SPIO solution were stereotactically injected into the left striatum. A 7.

The subjects were randomly assigned to either the control arm (supportive therapy alone) or the itraconazole arm (itraconazole 400 mg day−1 with supportive PCI-32765 molecular weight therapy). The randomisation sequence was computer generated using the statistical package StatsDirect for MS-Windows (Version 2.7.2, England, StatsDirect Ltd, 2005. http://www.statsdirect.com). The assignments were placed in sealed opaque envelopes and each patient’s assignment to a particular group was made sequentially. Blinding of treatment allocation was not possible. Itraconazole (Fungitrace, Lifecare Pharma, Gurgaon, India) was administered at a dose

of 200 mg twice a day along with meals (or orange juice) for 6 months. Drug levels of itraconazole were not performed. During the study period, no proton pump inhibitors or other acid reducing medicines were allowed. Adherence to itraconazole was assessed by instructing patient to bring the empty pill covers of the drug. Supportive therapy included antitussives (combination of dextromethorphan 10 mg, triprolidine 1.25 mg and phenylephrine 5 mg twice daily), iron and vitamin supplements (100 mg find more of elemental iron as ferrous ascorbate; folic acid 1 mg day−1), and bronchial artery embolisation and/or surgery as and when indicated. All patients underwent the following investigations

at baseline: chest radiograph, CT of the chest, serum precipitins against Aspergillus species, flexible bronchoscopy, sputum/BALF culture for Aspergillus and mycobacteria, spirometry, complete blood count, liver function tests and electrocardiogram. Aspergillus skin test and total serum IgE levels were performed to exclude ABPA. At 6 months CT chest, spirometry and complete blood count were repeated. Liver function tests were performed every 1–2 months or immediately if patients complained of jaundice, easy fatiguability, loss of appetite or right upper quadrant abdominal pain. All data were recorded on a

standard questionnaire. Clinical response was classified as improved, stable or worsened based on assessment of patient’s sense of well-being, gain in weight, improvement in cough and exercise capacity, decrease in the number, and frequency IMP dehydrogenase and quantity of haemoptysis. Radiological response was considered present if there was decrease in the size/number of the fungal balls, attenuation of the paracavitary infiltrates or pleural fibrosis. The response was assessed objectively by measuring the longest diameter of various lesions and a 50% reduction was taken as criteria for improvement. Overall response was classified as[2]: (a) improved: improved or stable clinical response and radiologically improved or stable disease; and (b) failed: worsening of symptoms or radiological progression. All outcomes were assessed at the end of 6 months of therapy. Patients were followed up for at least 6 months following completion of treatment.